Chapter Ka Central Theme — याद रखो!

[object Object]Buddhist, Jaina, and Brahmanical texts — plus monuments and inscriptions

[object Object]Stupa at Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) — UNESCO World Heritage Site

[object Object]c. 600 BCE – 600 CE — roughly 1200 years

[object Object]यह period India’s three major religious traditions को shape करता है — Vedic/Brahmanical, Jainism, Buddhism

Teacher’s Tip: Sanchi vs Amaravati — दोनों को compare करो

Sanchi: Survived! क्योंकि scholars ने in situ preservation की value समझी।

Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh): 1796 में local raja ने ruins discover किये। 1854 में Walter Elliot ने sculptures को Madras ले गये (Elliot Marbles)। Slabs को Calcutta, Madras, London भेजा गया।

H.H. Cole (archaeologist) ने protest किया: ‘It is suicidal and indefensible to allow the country to be looted of original works of ancient art.’

Sanchi survived कारण: 1818 में discovery के time तीन gateways खड़े थे — scholars ने value realise की और preservation chose की।

Source 1: A Prayer to Agni (Rigveda) — NCERT Source

‘Bring, O strong one, this sacrifice of ours to the gods; Bestow on us, O priest, abundant food.’

Teacher: इस prayer में material gains माँगे जा रहे हैं — cattle, sons, health। यही early Vedic religion की characteristic है।

UPSC Angle: Vedic religion से Upanishadic philosophy की shift — ritual से introspection की ओर।

Source 3: Fatalists and Materialists — NCERT Source

Makkhali Gosala (Ajivika tradition): Fatalist — everything is predetermined, karma matters not.

Ajita Kesakambali (Lokayata): Materialist — no afterlife, no soul; human body dissolves into four elements at death.

Teacher: इन texts का कोई original नहीं बचा — हम इन्हें सिर्फ Buddhist texts के through जानते हैं। यही historians की challenge है!

UPSC MCQ Point: Lokayatas = Charvakas = Materialists. Ajivikas = Fatalists.

Jainism ke 5 Core Principles — Remember These!

1. Ahimsa (Non-violence): Most important — entire world is animated, even stones and rocks.

2. Satya (Truth): Do not lie.

3. Asteya (Non-stealing): Do not steal.

4. Brahmacharya (Celibacy): Jain monks and nuns observe celibacy.

5. Aparigraha (Non-possession): Do not own property.

EXTRA: Cycle of birth and rebirth through KARMA — Asceticism and penance break the karma chain.

Monastic existence is a NECESSARY condition of salvation in Jainism.

Source 4: The World Beyond the Palace (Uttaradhyayana Sutta)

Queen Kamalavati ने अपने husband को renounce world करने की कोशिश की:

‘If the whole world and all its treasures were yours, you would not be satisfied… dhaamma alone will save you.’

Teacher: Notice — Jain texts में women भी wisdom और renunciation की advocate हैं।

UPSC Angle: यह source Jain literature की nature — oral tradition, stories, persuasion — दिखाता है।

Key Concept

Explanation

Anicca (Transience)

World is transient (anicca) and constantly changing

Anatta (Soullessness)

World is soulless — there is nothing permanent or eternal in it

Dukkha (Sorrow)

Sorrow is intrinsic to human existence

Middle Path

Path of moderation between severe penance and self-indulgence

Individual Agency

Human beings can rise above worldly troubles through action

God’s Existence

In earliest Buddhism — whether or not god existed was IRRELEVANT

Source 5: Buddhism in Practice (Sutta Pitaka) — NCERT Source

Buddha’s advice to wealthy householder Sigala — 5 ways a master should look after servants and employees: assign work according to strength, supply food and wages, tend them in sickness, share delicacies, grant leave at times.

Teacher: यह source दिखाता है कि Buddhism सिर्फ monks के लिए नहीं था — ordinary household life को भी ethical बनाने की कोशिश थी।

Also: advice to sramanas (renouncers), to parents, teachers, and wife।

UPSC Angle: Buddhist ethics = practical, social, applicable to everyday life।

Source 6: The Therigatha — NCERT Source

A unique Buddhist text — part of the Sutta Pitaka — verses composed by bhikkhunis.

Story of Punna (a dasi/slave woman): went daily to river for master’s water. Saw Brahmana performing bathing rituals.

Punna challenged him: ‘Whoever told you you are freed from evil by washing in the water? In that case frogs and turtles would go to heaven!’

Teacher: This is RADICAL! एक दासी एक Brahmin को philosophical challenge दे रही है। यह Buddhism का egalitarian character दिखाता है।

UPSC Angle: Therigatha = women’s voices in early Buddhism. Important for gender history questions.

Source 7: Rules for Monks and Nuns (Vinaya Pitaka) — NCERT Source

When a new felt (blanket/rug) is made by a bhikkhu, it must be kept for at least 6 years.

Bhikkhu at a family residence may accept max 2-3 bowlfuls of food.

Bhikkhu must not leave bedding belonging to sangha without putting it away.

Teacher: ये rules बहुत practical हैं — community life को organised और disciplined रखने के लिए। Non-attachment to material things का principle हर rule में है।

UPSC Angle: Vinaya Pitaka = monastic rules. Sutta Pitaka = Buddha’s teachings. Abhidhamma Pitaka = philosophical matters.

Source 8: Why Were Stupas Built? (Mahaparinibbana Sutta)

Ananda asked the dying Buddha: ‘What are we to do Lord with the remains of the Tathagata?’

Buddha replied: ‘Hinder not yourselves Ananda by honouring the remains of the Tathagata. Be zealous, be intent on your own good.’

When pressed: ‘At the four crossroads they should erect a thupa (stupa) to the Tathagata. And whosoever shall place garlands or perfume… shall long be to them for a profit and joy.’

Teacher: यह source दो things बताता है: (1) Buddha originally didn’t want elaborate rituals; (2) gradually relic worship developed as a community practice।

UPSC Key Fact: The tradition may have been pre-Buddhist. Since they contained relics, stupas became venerated as an emblem of both the Buddha and Buddhism.

Part

Meaning / Function

Anda

Semi-circular mound of earth (the main dome)

Harmika

Balcony-like structure on top — represented the abode of the gods

Yashti

A mast rising from the harmika

Chhatra

An umbrella surmounting the yashti

Vedika

Stone railings resembling bamboo/wooden fence

Torana

Richly carved gateways at the four cardinal points

H.H. Cole’s Famous Statement — UPSC/CBSE Quote

‘It seems to me a suicidal and indefensible policy to allow the country to be looted of original works of ancient art.’

Cole believed museums should have plaster-cast facsimiles, whereas the originals should remain where they were found (IN SITU).

Teacher: यह quote बहुत important है — यह colonial India में heritage preservation की debate को represent करता है।

Symbol

Represents

Empty seat

Meditation of the Buddha

Stupa

Mahaparinibbana (death of Buddha)

Wheel (Dharmachakra)

First sermon at Sarnath

Bodhi Tree

Enlightenment (not just a tree — symbolises an event)

Footprints

Presence of the Buddha

Mahayana vs Hinayana/Theravada — UPSC MCQ Point

Mahayana = ‘Great vehicle’ — salvation for all, Buddha as saviour, Bodhisattas

Hinayana = ‘Lesser vehicle’ — term used by Mahayana supporters for the older tradition

Theravada = ‘Those who followed the path of old, respected teachers, the theras’ — term used by followers of the older tradition THEMSELVES (not derogatory)

Key: Followers of older tradition did NOT call themselves Hinayana — they called themselves Theravada.

The Puranas — महत्वपूर्ण तथ्य

Compiled by Brahmanas, c. middle of 1st millennium CE.

Contained stories about gods and goddesses, composed in simple Sanskrit verse.

Meant to be read aloud to everybody — including women and Shudras who did not have access to Vedic learning.

Content evolved through interaction amongst people — priests, merchants, ordinary men and women travelling from place to place.

Example: Vasudeva-Krishna worship — first important in Mathura region, then spread elsewhere.

UPSC Key: Puranas are a PRIMARY source for understanding the growth of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

NCERT Key Insight: Not Everything is Recorded!

Many rituals, religious beliefs and practices were NOT recorded in a permanent visible form — as monuments, or sculpture, or even paintings.

These included daily practices, as well as those associated with special occasions.

Many communities and peoples may not have felt the need for keeping lasting records.

The spectacular instances we have focused on in this chapter are JUST THE TIP OF THE ICEBERG.

Teacher: इस paragraph को याद रखो! यह UPSC mains के लिए perfect opening line है।

Period

Development

c. 1500–1000 BCE

Early Vedic traditions

c. 1000–500 BCE

Later Vedic traditions

c. sixth century BCE

Early Upanishads; Jainism, Buddhism

c. third century BCE

First stupas

c. second century BCE

Development of Mahayana Buddhism, Vaishnavism, Shaivism and goddess cults

c. third century CE

Earliest temples

Year

Event

1814

Founding of the Indian Museum, Calcutta

1834

Publication of Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus by Ram Raja; Cunningham explores stupa at Sarnath

1835–42

James Fergusson surveys major archaeological sites

1851

Establishment of the Government Museum, Madras

1854

Alexander Cunningham publishes Bhilsa Topes (on Sanchi)

1878

Rajendra Lala Mitra publishes Buddha Gaya: The Heritage of Sakya Muni

1880

H.H. Cole appointed Curator of Ancient Monuments

1888

Passing of the Treasure Trove Act — giving government right to acquire all objects of archaeological interest

1914

John Marshall and Alfred Foucher publish The Monuments of Sanchi

1923

John Marshall publishes the Conservation Manual

1955

Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru lays the foundation stone of the National Museum, New Delhi

1989

Sanchi declared a World Heritage Site

Q1. Were the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers different from those of the fatalists and materialists? Give reasons for your answer.

Ans. 

Ans. हाँ, Upanishadic thinkers, fatalists, और materialists के ideas बिल्कुल अलग थे।

Upanishadic Thinkers believed in the existence of an individual soul (atman) and a universal soul (Brahman). They sought to understand the relationship between atman and Brahman as the path to liberation (moksha). Rebirth, karma, and the cycle of samsara were central to their thought. The Upanishads encouraged introspection and philosophical inquiry.

Fatalists (Ajivikas, led by Makkhali Gosala) believed that everything is predetermined. Neither karma nor effort can change one’s destiny. Pleasure and pain are measured out as it were in a ball of string — they will run their course.

Materialists (Lokayatas/Charvakas, like Ajita Kesakambali) denied the existence of the soul, afterlife, or any spiritual reality. They believed the human body is made of four elements. There is no karma, no rebirth, no merit in giving gifts.

In contrast, Upanishadic thinkers affirmed both the soul and the possibility of liberation through knowledge. Fatalists denied individual agency; Upanishadic thinkers affirmed it. Materialists denied metaphysical reality; Upanishadic thinkers affirmed it.

Q2. Summarise the central teachings of Jainism.

Ans. 

Ans. Jainism की central teachings Mahavira ने 6th century BCE में systematise कीं, though the tradition is older।

1. Ahimsa (Non-violence): The entire world is animated — stones, rocks, water, fire have life. Non-injury to all living beings is central.

2. Karma and Rebirth: The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma. Actions determine future existence.

3. Asceticism and Penance: Required to free oneself from the cycle of karma. Monastic existence is a necessary condition of salvation.

4. Five Vows for Monks/Nuns: (i) Ahimsa — non-killing; (ii) Satya — non-lying; (iii) Asteya — non-stealing; (iv) Brahmacharya — celibacy; (v) Aparigraha — non-possession.

5. Individual Salvation through Own Effort: No god can help; liberation comes only through renunciation of the world and one’s own penance.

Jainism spread gradually across India, with scholars producing literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Tamil.

Q3. Discuss the role of the begums of Bhopal in preserving the stupa at Sanchi.

Ans. 

Ans. The begums of Bhopal played a crucial role in preserving Sanchi for future generations.

Shahjehan Begum (ruled 1868–1901) and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum provided money for the preservation of the ancient site of Sanchi.

When 19th-century Europeans — both French and English — wanted to take away the eastern gateway (the best preserved) to museums in France and London respectively, the begums ensured both were satisfied with plaster-cast copies. The original remained at the site as part of the Bhopal state.

Sultan Jehan Begum funded the museum that was built at Sanchi, the guesthouse where John Marshall lived and wrote his volumes, and the publication of his important work. John Marshall dedicated his volumes on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan.

Their patronage was crucial: without it, the stupa complex might have been dismantled like Amaravati. Today, Sanchi stands as a World Heritage Site, a testament to their wise stewardship.

Q4. Read this short inscription and answer:’In the year 33 of the maharaja Huvishka (a Kushana ruler), in the first month of the hot season on the eighth day, a Bodhisatta was set up at Madhuvana by the Mikkhuni Dhanavati, the sister’s daughter of the Mikkhuni Buddhamita, who knows the Tipitaka, the female pupil of the bhikkhu Bala, who knows the Tipitaka, together with her father and mother.'(a) How did Dhanavati date her inscription? (b) Why do you think she installed an image of the Bodhisatta? (c) Who were the relatives she mentioned? (d) What Buddhist text did she know? (e) From whom did she learn this text?

Ans. 

(a) How did Dhanavati date her inscription?

Dhanavati dated her inscription by the regnal year of the ruler, maharaja Huvishka (a Kushana king): ‘In the year 33 of the maharaja Huvishka.’ She also specified the month (first month of the hot season) and the day (eighth day). This is a typical dating method in ancient Indian inscriptions — regnal year dating.

(b) Why do you think she installed an image of the Bodhisatta?

Dhanavati likely installed the image of the Bodhisatta as an act of devotion and piety, to accumulate merit (punya). In Mahayana Buddhist tradition, the Bodhisatta was regarded as a compassionate being who could help devotees attain liberation. Installing such an image at a sacred place (Madhuvana) would be seen as a meritorious act benefitting herself and her family. It was also a way of publicly expressing her Buddhist identity and learning.

(c) Who were the relatives she mentioned?

Dhanavati mentioned: (i) her maternal aunt — Mikkhuni Buddhamita (a bhikkhuni who knew the Tipitaka); (ii) her father; (iii) her mother.

(d) What Buddhist text did she know?

She knew the Tipitaka — the three baskets of Buddhist literature: Vinaya Pitaka (monastic rules), Sutta Pitaka (Buddha’s teachings), and Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophical matters).

(e) From whom did she learn this text?

She learnt the Tipitaka from bhikkhu Bala — who is described as a male monk also knowledgeable in the Tipitaka. This is significant because it shows a female disciple learning from a male teacher — cross-gender transmission of knowledge within the Buddhist community. It also shows women had access to high-level Buddhist education.

Q5. Why do you think women and men joined the sangha?

Ans. 

Ans. Several reasons drew both women and men to the Buddhist sangha:

For Men: (i) Dissatisfaction with existing Brahmanical religious practices that emphasised birth-based hierarchy; (ii) The Buddhist emphasis on individual agency and equality within the sangha; (iii) The appeal of metta (fellow feeling) and karuna (compassion) as values; (iv) The rapid social changes of the period created uncertainty, and the sangha offered a structured, purposeful community life.

For Women (like Punna, Mahapajapati Gotami): (i) The sangha offered liberation from the restrictive social roles imposed on women in Brahmanical society; (ii) Women could become bhikkhunis (ordained nuns), achieve learning, and even become theris (respected teachers of dhamma); (iii) The Therigatha shows that women composed learned verses and could challenge even Brahmanas in philosophical debate; (iv) A dasi (slave woman) like Punna could find social equality and spiritual dignity in the sangha that was impossible outside it.

The sangha was genuinely radical for its time: it accepted people from all social groups and treated them as equals once within the community.

Q6. To what extent does knowledge of Buddhist literature help in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi?

Ans. 

Ans. (Short Essay — approximately 500 words)

Introduction: The sculpture at Sanchi is one of the richest visual archives of ancient India. At first glance, many of these sculptures appear to be mere decorative panels — depicting rural scenes, animals, women at trees, and processions. However, knowledge of Buddhist literature transforms our understanding of these sculptures entirely, revealing them as carefully coded narratives.

Symbols That Need Textual Interpretation: One of the most crucial contributions of Buddhist textual knowledge is the ability to decode symbols. Early Buddhist sculptors did not depict the Buddha in human form. Instead, they used symbols: an empty seat (meditation), a stupa (mahaparinibbana), a wheel/dharmachakra (first sermon at Sarnath), a bodhi tree (enlightenment), and footprints (presence). Without knowledge of the Sutta Pitaka and hagiographies, a viewer would see a tree, a wheel, or an empty throne — and not understand what they represent.

Jataka Tales and Narrative Panels: Many narrative panels at Sanchi depict Jataka tales — stories of the Buddha’s previous lives. Figure 4.13, for instance, appears to show a rural scene with thatched huts and trees. But art historians, using knowledge of the Jataka literature, identified it as the Vessantara Jataka — the story of a generous prince who gave away everything to a Brahmana. Without this literary background, the sculpture would remain a pleasant countryside scene, its deeper meaning entirely lost.

Popular Traditions and Their Textual Backdrop: Some sculptures at Sanchi draw not from Buddhist texts but from pre-Buddhist popular traditions. The shalabhanjika (a woman whose touch causes trees to flower) is an example of an auspicious symbol from folk traditions integrated into Buddhist art. James Fergusson, the earliest modern art historian to study Sanchi, concluded it was a centre of tree and serpent worship because he had not read Buddhist literature. This error illustrates the risk of interpreting art without textual knowledge.

Limitations: Not Everything Can Be Decoded: At the same time, knowledge of Buddhist literature does not always resolve interpretive debates. The famous rock-cut panel at Mahabalipuram remains disputed: some scholars, drawing on the Puranas and epics, see the descent of the Ganga; others, drawing on the Mahabharata, see Arjuna doing penance. Both readings are textually supported. This shows that while literature guides interpretation, it does not always produce a single definitive answer.

Conclusion: Knowledge of Buddhist literature is essential for understanding Sanchi’s sculpture, from decoding symbolic representations of the Buddha to identifying Jataka narratives and understanding the integration of popular traditions. However, scholars must also be aware that (i) popular traditions that were NOT recorded in texts also shaped art; (ii) multiple texts may support multiple readings; and (iii) as the NCERT aptly notes, the monuments we study are merely ‘the tip of the iceberg’ of a much richer religious and artistic life that left no permanent record.

Q8. Discuss the development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

Ans. 

Ans. (Short Essay)

Introduction: The rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism from c. second century BCE onwards was accompanied by remarkable developments in sculpture and temple architecture. These new religious traditions required physical spaces for worship and visual representations of their deities, leading to innovative artistic traditions.

Sculptural Representation: Vishnu was depicted in various avatar forms. The ten avatars included figures like the Varaha (boar) avatar — Vishnu rescuing the earth goddess — depicted in a magnificent sculpture at Aihole, Karnataka (c. sixth century CE). Shiva was symbolised primarily by the linga, though he was also depicted in human form. Complex iconographic conventions developed: deities were identified through specific head-dresses, ornaments, and ayudhas (weapons or auspicious objects). For example, Vishnu holds the chakra and shankha; Shiva is identifiable by the trishul and matted hair.

Durga and Goddess Cults: Images of Durga at Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu, c. sixth century CE) show the growth of goddess cults. These sculptures depicted complex ideas about divine power through movement, proportion, and symbolic attributes.

Temple Architecture: The first temples to house images of gods and goddesses were small structures with a garbhagriha (a small square room for the deity’s image) and a single entrance. Gradually, a shikhara was added over the central shrine. The Deogarh temple (Uttar Pradesh, c. fifth century CE) is an excellent example of early temple architecture with a shikhara. Temple walls were decorated with sculpture.

Later Developments: Temples became increasingly elaborate with assembly halls, huge walls and gateways, and arrangements for supplying water. Cave temples were also built — initially for Ajivikas in Barabar (Bihar, 3rd century BCE), and later the magnificent Kailashnatha Temple at Ellora (8th century CE), carved entirely from a single rock.

Conclusion: The development of Vaishnavism and Shaivism thus transformed the visual and architectural landscape of India, creating a rich tradition of iconography and temple building that continues to influence Indian art to this day.

Q9. Discuss how and why stupas were built.

Ans. 

Ans. (Short Essay)

Why Stupas Were Built: Stupas originated from a pre-Buddhist tradition of regarding certain natural sites as sacred. They came to be especially associated with Buddhism because they contained relics of the Buddha — his bodily remains or objects used by him. These mounds became venerated as emblems of both the Buddha and Buddhism. According to the Ashokavadana, Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important town and ordered construction of stupas over them. By the second century BCE, stupas at Bharhut, Sanchi, and Sarnath had been built. Stupas were also built over the remains of other revered teachers and at places associated with events in the Buddha’s life (Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Kusinagara, Sarnath).

How Stupas Were Built: Inscriptions on railings and pillars record a wide range of donors: kings (Satavahanas contributed several gateways), guilds (ivory workers financed part of a gateway at Sanchi), and hundreds of ordinary women and men who mentioned their names, occupations, and places of origin. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis also contributed. This diversity of donors shows that stupa building was a truly community enterprise, with people from many social groups participating.

Structure: The stupa began as a simple semi-circular mound (anda) of earth. Over time it evolved: above the anda was the harmika (representing the abode of the gods), from which rose a yashti (mast) surmounted by a chhatra (umbrella). Around the mound was a vedika (stone railing) resembling bamboo/wooden fences, with richly carved toranas (gateways) at the four cardinal points. Worshippers entered through the eastern gateway and circumambulated the mound clockwise, imitating the sun’s course.

Conclusion: Stupas were thus built as acts of devotion and merit-making, drawing on a mix of pre-Buddhist sacred site traditions and specifically Buddhist relic veneration. They are among the most important monuments of early Indian history.

Term

Meaning

Ahimsa (अहिंसा)

Non-violence — central to Jainism

Anda (अण्ड)

The dome of a stupa

Atman (आत्मन्)

Individual soul — Upanishadic concept

Ayudha (आयुध)

Weapons/auspicious objects held by deities in sculpture

Bhakti (भक्ति)

Devotion and love towards a god — central to Vaishnavism and Shaivism

Bhikkhu (भिक्खु)

Buddhist monk (male)

Bhikkhuni (भिक्खुनी)

Buddhist nun (female)

Bodhisatta (बोधिसत्त)

In Mahayana: compassionate being who helps others attain liberation

Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)

Universal soul/ultimate reality — Upanishadic concept

Chaitya (चैत्य)

Sacred site; funerary mound; Buddhist sacred building

Dharma/Dhamma (धर्म/धम्म)

Path of righteous living (used in Buddhism)

Dukkha (दुक्ख)

Sorrow — intrinsic to human existence in Buddhist thought

Garbhagriha (गर्भगृह)

The inner sanctum/shrine room of a temple

Harmika (हर्मिका)

Balcony-like structure atop a stupa representing the abode of the gods

Hagiography (हागियोग्राफी)

Biography of a saint or religious leader

In Situ (इन सीटू)

Latin: on the spot — preserving artefacts where they were found

Jataka (जातक)

Stories of the Buddha’s previous lives

Karma (कर्म)

Action; determines cycle of rebirth

Karuna (करुणा)

Compassion — a key Buddhist value

Kutogarashala

Hut with a pointed roof; where travelling mendicants halted for debates

Linga (लिंग)

Symbol of Shiva

Mahaparinibbana

The death (and final liberation) of the Buddha

Metta (मेत्ता)

Fellow feeling — a key Buddhist value

Moksha (मोक्ष)

Liberation from the cycle of rebirth

Nibbana/Nirvana (निब्बान)

Extinguishing of ego and desire; liberation

Sangha (संघ)

Community of Buddhist monks and nuns

Shalabhanjika (शालभञ्जिका)

A woman whose touch causes trees to flower — auspicious pre-Buddhist motif

Shikhara (शिखर)

Tall tower built over the central shrine of a temple

Sutta Pitaka (सुत्त पिटक)

Buddhist scripture containing the Buddha’s teachings

Theri (थेरी)

Respected women bhikkhunis who attained liberation

Tipitaka (तिपिटक)

The three baskets — the canon of Buddhist literature

Tirthankara (तीर्थंकर)

Jain teachers — literally ‘those who guide men and women across the river of existence’

Torana (तोरण)

Richly carved gateway to a stupa

Vedika (वेदिका)

Stone railing around a stupa

Vinaya Pitaka (विनय पिटक)

Buddhist scripture containing monastic rules

Yashti (यष्टि)

Mast rising from the harmika of a stupa

VSA = Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma

V = Vinaya Pitaka — Monastic Rules (V for Very disciplined monks)

S = Sutta Pitaka — Buddha’s Teachings (S for Stories/Suttas)

A = Abhidhamma Pitaka — Philosophical Matters (A for Abstract philosophy)

ASSAB = Ahimsa, Satya, Steya (asteya), Abstinence (brahmacharya), Aparigraha

A = Ahimsa (non-violence)

S = Satya (truth)

S = Asteya (non-stealing)

A = Aparigraha (non-possession)

B = Brahmacharya (celibacy)