Complete NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 2: Kings, Farmers and Towns Notes in Hindi | UPSC & PSC

Theme 2: Kings, Farmers and Towns

Early States and Economies (c. 600 BCE – 600 CE)

Deep Study Notes | Story-Style | Hindi + English

PSC MCQs | FAQs | Topic-wise Discussion

Topic 1: Prinsep and Piyadassi — Epigraphy की शुरुआत

Story Time: Teacher कहते हैं — Imagine करो 1830s का India. East India Company का राज है। James Prinsep नाम का एक British officer Calcutta Mint में काम करता है। उसके हाथ लगती है एक पुरानी inscription — पत्थर पर खुदे कुछ अक्षर जिन्हें कोई पढ़ नहीं सकता था। यही moment था जब Indian history की सबसे बड़ी unlock होने वाली थी!

“देखो बच्चों,” teacher ने blackboard पर लिखा — ‘BRAHMI SCRIPT’. “1838 में Prinsep ने Brahmi और Kharosthi दोनों scripts को decipher कर दिया। इससे हमें पहली बार पता चला कि Asoka नाम का एक महान राजा था जो खुद को ‘Piyadassi’ — यानी ‘pleasant to behold’ — कहता था।”

 

Key Point — Inscriptions क्या होती हैं? Inscriptions वे writings हैं जो पत्थर, metal या pottery जैसी hard surfaces पर उकेरी जाती हैं। ये virtually permanent records होती हैं। इनसे राजाओं के achievements, donations और exploits का पता चलता है। Earliest inscriptions Prakrit भाषा में थीं — यह ordinary people की language थी।

 

7. Back to Basics — How Are Inscriptions Deciphered?

7.1 Deciphering Brahmi — European और Indian Scholars की मेहनत

Modern Indian languages की most scripts Brahmi से ही derived हैं! 18th century के late period से, European scholars ने Indian pandits की मदद से contemporary Bengali और Devanagari manuscripts को older specimens से compare करके Brahmi को समझा। Initially scholars मानते थे कि ये Sanskrit में हैं, पर actually ये Prakrit में थीं। Decades of painstaking work के बाद James Prinsep ने 1838 में Asokan Brahmi को decipher किया।

 

7.2 Kharosthi कैसे पढ़ी गई?

Northwest में Kharosthi script use होती थी। Indo-Greek kings के coins मिले जिन पर Greek और Kharosthi दोनों में राजाओं के नाम थे। Greek scholars उन्हें पढ़ सकते थे। Symbol for ‘a’ दोनों scripts में Apollodotus जैसे नामों में common था। इस तरह Prinsep ने Kharosthi को identify किया और longer inscriptions पढ़ना possible हो गया।

 

7.3 Historical Evidence from Inscriptions — Asoka की पहचान

Notice करो कि Asoka का नाम inscriptions में directly नहीं आता! वो खुद को ‘devanampiya’ (beloved of gods) और ‘piyadassi’ (pleasant to behold) कहता है। इन titles को अन्य inscriptions में भी Asoka के साथ match किया गया। Epigraphists ने content, style, language और palaeography सब examine करके conclude किया कि ये same ruler द्वारा issued थे।

 

Timeline 2: Major Advances in Epigraphy

Century	Event / घटना
1784	Founding of the Asiatic Society (Bengal) — Asiatic Society की स्थापना
1810s	Colin Mackenzie collected over 8,000 inscriptions in the Sanskrit and Dravidian languages
1838	Decipherment of Asokan Brahmi by James Prinsep — ब्राह्मी का रहस्य खुला
1877	Alexander Cunningham publishes a set of Asokan inscriptions
1886	First issue of Epigraphia Carnatica, a journal of South Indian inscriptions
1888	First issue of Epigraphia Indica
1965-66	D.C. Sircar publishes Indian Epigraphy and Indian Epigraphical Glossary

 

8. The Limitations of Inscriptional Evidence

Teacher की बात सुनो: “Epigraphy is powerful, but it has limits. Think of it as reading only the official press releases of ancient times — not the full story.”

• Technical limitations — letters faintly engraved, uncertain reconstructions
• Inscriptions may be damaged or have missing letters
• Exact meaning of words unclear — scholars constantly debate alternative readings
• Thousands discovered but not all deciphered or published
• Routine agricultural practices, joys, sorrows — inscriptions में नहीं मिलते
• Inscriptions almost invariably project the perspective of the person(s) who commissioned them

 

💡 Teacher Note — Critical Point “Epigraphy alone does not provide a full understanding of political and economic history. Historians question both old and new evidence. Late 19th – early 20th century scholars primarily focused on the histories of kings. Mid-20th century onwards, economic change और marginalised groups की histories far more important बन गईं।”

Topic 2: The Earliest States — महाजनपद और राजनीति

Story Time: 6th century BCE — पूरे subcontinent में एक नई हलचल है। Iron tools बन रहे हैं, coins चल रहे हैं, और cities emerge हो रहीं हैं। Teacher board पर लिखते हैं: ‘c. 600 BCE — A Major Turning Point in Indian History. इसी period में 16 states थे जिन्हें हम Mahajanapadas कहते हैं।

 

2.1 The Sixteen Mahajanapadas

Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara और Avanti — ये frequently mentioned हैं early Buddhist और Jaina texts में। Mahajanapada का मतलब? जान-पदा = the land where a jana (people/clan) settles its foot — Sanskrit और Prakrit दोनों में यही word है!

🏛️ Oligarchy vs Monarchy — Class Discussion कुछ mahajanapadas kings से governed थे (monarchies), तो कुछ में power कई men के group में shared थी — इन्हें oligarchies कहते हैं। Vajji sangha इसका best example है जहाँ rajas collectively rule करते थे। Roman Republic भी एक oligarchy था despite its name!

 

2.2 First Amongst the Sixteen: Magadha

6th-4th centuries BCE में Magadha (present-day Bihar) most powerful mahajanapada बना। क्यों? Teacher explain करते हैं:

• Agriculture especially productive था — fertile land
• Iron mines Jharkhand में accessible थे — tools और weapons के लिए
• Elephants forests में available थे — army के लिए crucial
• Ganga और tributaries — cheap transport means
• Ambitious kings: Bimbisara, Ajatasattu, Mahapadma Nanda — policy-driven growth

“Initially Rajagaha (present-day Rajgir in Bihar) Magadha की capital थी,” teacher ने map दिखाते हुए कहा। “Rajagaha का Prakrit meaning है ‘house of the king’. यह fortified settlement था — hills के बीच बसा। फिर 4th century BCE में Magadhan rulers ने capital shift की Pataliputra (Patna) में — Ganga के किनारे, communication routes को command करती हुई city।”

Topic 3: An Early Empire — मौर्य साम्राज्य का उदय

Magadha की power का culmination हुआ Mauryan Empire के उदय में। Chandragupta Maurya ने c. 321 BCE में empire की स्थापना की। उसने control extend किया as far northwest as Afghanistan और Baluchistan तक। उसका grandson Asoka arguably early India का most famous ruler बना, जिसने Kalinga (present-day coastal Orissa) को conquer किया।

 

3.1 Finding Out About the Mauryas — Sources क्या हैं?

Historians ने variety of sources use किए Mauryan history reconstruct करने के लिए:

• Archaeological finds — especially sculpture
• Account of Megasthenes — Greek ambassador at Chandragupta Maurya’s court
• Arthashastra — possibly composed by Kautilya/Chanakya (traditionally Chandragupta का minister)
• Later Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic literature
• Sanskrit literary works
• Asoka’s inscriptions (c. 272/268-231 BCE) on rocks and pillars — most valuable sources

 

Source Analysis — Source 1: What the King’s Officials Did (Megasthenes) Megasthenes writes: Great officers of state superintend the rivers, measure the land, inspect the sluices. They collect taxes, superintend occupations — woodcutters, carpenters, blacksmiths, miners. यह shows Mauryan administration की efficiency और scope को।

 

3.2 Administering the Empire

Mauryan Empire के five major political centres थे: Capital Pataliputra और provincial centres Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali और Suvarnagiri. Asoka के inscriptions इन सभी को mention करते हैं। इनकी distribution देखो Map 2 पर — present-day North West Frontier Provinces of Pakistan से Andhra Pradesh, Orissa और Uttarakhand तक!

पर क्या empire में uniform administrative system था? Historians increasingly realise that this is unlikely. Regions within empire were just too diverse — Afghanistan की hilly terrain और Orissa coast — बहुत अलग! Administrative control strongest था capital और provincial centres के आसपास, जो carefully chosen थे important long-distance trade routes पर।

 

3.3 How Important Was the Empire?

19th century में when historians began reconstructing early Indian history, Mauryan Empire को एक major landmark माना गया। यह British Empire के under था India। 19th-20th century Indian historians को inspiring लगा यह idea कि early India में एक empire था। Asoka के inscriptions message बहुत different था other rulers के compared — more humble, more dhamma-focused। इसीलिए 20th century nationalist leaders ने उसे inspiring figure माना।

“पर याद रखो बच्चों,” teacher ने warning दी, “Mauryan Empire lasted only about 150 years — not very long in the vast span of subcontinent’s history. By second century BCE, new chiefdoms and kingdoms emerged. The empire did not encompass the entire subcontinent. Control was not uniform.”

Topic 4: New Notions of Kingship — राजत्व की नई अवधारणाएं

4.1 Chiefs and Kings in the South

Mauryan empire के collapse के बाद, new kingdoms emerged in Deccan and south — Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas in Tamilakam। इनके साथ ही Satavahanas (western और central India, c. second century BCE-second century CE) और Shakas (Central Asian origin, north-western India) भी आए। इनकी social origins often obscure थीं, पर power acquire करने के बाद इन्होंने social status claim करने की variety of ways try कीं।

Chiefs and Chiefdoms — Definition A chief is a powerful man who may or may not be hereditary. Functions: performing special rituals, leadership in warfare, and arbitrating disputes. वो gifts receive करता है subordinates से (unlike kings who collect taxes) और उन्हें distribute करता है supporters में। Chiefdoms में कोई regular armies नहीं, no regular bureaucracies।

 

4.2 Divine Kings — देवता जैसे राजा

High status claim करने का एक means था — identify करना variety of deities के साथ। Kushanas (c. first century BCE – first century CE, vast kingdom from Central Asia to northwest India) इसके best example हैं। इनके colossal statues found हैं Mat (near Mathura) और Afghanistan में एक shrine में। Inscriptions और textual traditions से उनकी history reconstruct हुई है।

Kushana rulers ने title ‘devaputra’ यानी ‘son of god’ को adopt किया — Chinese rulers भी खुद को ‘sons of heaven’ कहते थे। 4th century CE तक larger states, including the Gupta Empire, evidence है। Samudra Gupta और Chandragupta II के Vakatakas के साथ relations — Prabhavati Gupta की inscription इसी period की है।

Source 4: In Praise of Samudragupta (Prayaga Prashasti) Harishena, court poet of Samudragupta, describes him: ‘He was without an antagonist on earth; he, by the overflowing of the multitude of (his) many good qualities…wiped off the fame of other kings.’ यह prashasti poetry है — kings की praise में compose किया गया। Historians इससे factual information निकालने की कोशिश करते हैं, पर ये literally true accounts नहीं हैं।

Topic 5: A Changing Countryside — बदलता हुआ ग्रामीण जीवन

5.1 Popular Perceptions of Kings — Jatakas और Panchatantra

Ordinary people अपने rulers के बारे में क्या सोचते थे? Historians ने इसे solve करने की कोशिश की anthologies जैसे Jatakas और Panchatantra के stories से। ये probably popular oral tales से originate हुए जिन्हें बाद में writing में commit किया गया। Jatakas Pali में लिखे गए around the first millennium CE के middle में।

“Gandatindu Jataka की story सुनो,” teacher ने class को engage किया। “एक wicked king के subjects का plight describe होता है — elderly women and men, cultivators, herders, village boys, even animals! जब king को पता चला कि subjects उसे curse कर रहे हैं, वो disguise में निकला। रात को robbers का attack, दिन में tax collectors की परेशानी। लोगों ने village छोड़ दिया, forest में रहना prefer किया। यही थी relationship between kings और rural population!”

 

5.2 Strategies for Increasing Production

Growing demand for taxes meet करने के लिए और political power strengthen करने के लिए, agricultural production increase करनी थी:

• Iron-tipped ploughshare का use — Ganga और Kaveri की fertile alluvial valleys में, c. sixth century BCE से। Paddy production dramatically increase हुई transplantation से।
• पर iron ploughshare का use restricted था — semi-arid Punjab, Rajasthan जैसे areas में adoption 20th century तक delay हुई। Hilly tracts में hoe agriculture better suited था।
• Irrigation — wells, tanks, canals के through। Communities और individuals organized construction। Kings also recorded such activities in inscriptions।

 

5.3 Differences in Rural Society

Production बढ़ी, पर benefits uneven थे। Buddhist texts mention landless agricultural labourers, small peasants, और large landholders। Term ‘gahapati’ — Pali में — second और third categories designate करने के लिए use होता था। Village headman (often hereditary) powerful बना। Sangam literature में different categories: landlowners या vellalar, ploughmen या uzhavar, slaves या adimai।

📖 Gahapati — एक Important Term A gahapati was the owner, master or head of a household, who exercised control over women, children, slaves and workers. वह household की resources — land, animals, other things — का owner था। Sometimes यह term men of urban elite के लिए भी status marker था, including wealthy merchants।

 

5.4 Land Grants and New Rural Elites

Common Era की early centuries से, land grants की practice शुरू हुई — many recorded in inscriptions, some on stone पर most on copper plates (Fig. 2.13)। ये records उन्हें दिए जाते थे जिन्हें land receive हुई — religious institutions या Brahmanas को।

Prabhavati Gupta — Chandragupta II की daughter, Vakatakas में married — उसकी inscription (Source 8, Danguna village) बताती है कि वो gramakulumbinas (householders/peasants) को command कर सकती थी। यह exceptional था क्योंकि Sanskrit legal texts में women supposed नहीं थीं independent resources access करने के लिए। Queen होने की वजह से उसकी situation exceptional थी।

Agrahara — एक Special Land Grant An agrahara was land granted to a Brahmana, exempted from paying land revenue और other dues to the king, given the right to collect these dues from local people. यह state की tax-collection capacity को Brahmanas को delegate करता था।

Topic 6: Towns and Trade — शहर और व्यापार

6.1 New Cities — नए शहरों का उदय

Sixth century BCE से urban centres emerge हुए subcontinent के कई parts में। Many mahajanapadas की capitals थीं। Some Pataliputra जैसे riverine routes पर, कुछ Ujjayini जैसे land routes पर, कुछ Puhar जैसे coast पर जहाँ sea routes शुरू होते थे। Mathura जैसे cities commercial, cultural और political activity के bustling centres थे।

 

6.2 Urban Populations — Elites and Craftspersons

Kings और ruling elites fortified cities में रहते थे। Archaeological sites से extensive excavations हुई हैं। Fine pottery bowls और dishes (Northern Black Polished Ware) — rich people use करते थे। Ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines — gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell, terracotta से बने।

Votive inscriptions — short inscriptions in number of cities — name donors और sometimes specify occupation: washing folk, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials, religious teachers, merchants, kings। Guilds या shrenis — craft producers और merchants organizations — mentioned हैं। इन्होंने probably raw materials procure किए, production regulate की और finished product market किया।

 

6.3 Trade in the Subcontinent and Beyond

6th century BCE से, land और river routes criss-crossed the subcontinent और extended overseas — overland into Central Asia, Bay of Bengal से Southeast Asia तक, Arabian Sea से East और North Africa और West Asia तक। Rulers controlled these routes, offering protection for a price।

Traders: peddlers on foot, merchants with bullock carts, seafarers with risky पर highly profitable ventures। Successful merchants — minsattuvan (Tamil), setthi और satthavaha (Prakrit) — designated किए गए। Goods: salt, grain, cloth, metal ores, finished products, stone, timber, medicinal plants।

Source 9: The Malabar Coast (Periplus of the Erythraean Sea) An anonymous Greek sailor (c. first century CE) describes how traders from abroad sent large ships to Malabar coast के markets for pepper, malabathrum, cinnamon, topaz, antimony, coral, crude glass, copper, tin, lead और pearl। यह text Greek word ‘Periplus’ (sailing around) है — Red Sea को ‘Erythraean’ कहते थे।

 

6.4 Coins and Kings

Exchanges को facilitate किया coinage introduction ने। Punch-marked coins (silver और copper, c. sixth century BCE onwards) earliest minted थे। Numismatists ने इनसे commercial networks reconstruct किए। Indo-Greeks first थे जिन्होंने coins पर rulers के names और images डाले (c. second century BCE)।

Kushanas ने largest hoards of gold coins issue किए — c. first century CE, virtually identical weight में contemporary Roman emperors और Parthian rulers के coins जैसे। Yaudheyas (Punjab और Haryana tribal republics) ने भी copper coins issue किए। Most spectacular gold coins Gupta rulers ने issue किए।

1. sixth century CE onwards gold coin finds taper off। Economic crisis? Historians divided हैं। कुछ मानते हैं Western Roman Empire के collapse से long-distance trade decline हुई। Others argue नए towns और networks of trade developed हो रहे थे।

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Teacher Style Deep Discussion — Exam के लिए और Conceptual Clarity के लिए

 

Q1. Inscriptions क्या होती हैं और ये history के लिए क्यों important हैं? Inscriptions वे writings हैं जो पत्थर, metal या pottery जैसी hard, durable surfaces पर engrave की जाती हैं। ये permanently survive करती हैं। इनसे राजाओं के achievements, donations, religious grants और administrative details पता चलते हैं। ये virtually permanent records हैं — paper manuscripts की तरह deteriorate नहीं होतीं। Early inscriptions Prakrit में थीं — ordinary people की language, Sanskrit नहीं। इसीलिए Asoka की inscriptions इतनी valuable हैं — वो directly अपने subjects से communicate कर रहा था।

 

Q2. Asoka ने खुद को क्या कहा? नाम ‘Asoka’ inscriptions में क्यों नहीं आता? Asoka ने खुद को ‘devanampiya’ (beloved of gods) और ‘piyadassi’ (pleasant to behold) कहा। यह royal titulature की practice थी — personal names अक्सर avoid होते थे, titles use होते थे। अन्य inscriptions में ‘Asoka’ title के साथ mentioned है। Epigraphists ने content, style, language और palaeography सब examine किया और concluded किया कि सभी inscriptions same ruler — Asoka — की हैं।

 

Q3. Magadha सबसे powerful mahajanapada क्यों बना? कई factors ने contribute किया: (1) Fertile agricultural land — productive crops, (2) Iron mines in Jharkhand — tools और weapons, (3) Elephants in forests — military advantage, (4) Ganga और tributaries — cheap transport और communication, (5) Ambitious और strategic kings — Bimbisara, Ajatasattu, Mahapadma Nanda। Early Buddhist और Jaina writers ने Magadha की power को rulers की policies का result माना, modern historians geographical और economic factors को emphasize करते हैं।

 

Q4. Mauryan Empire की administrative system क्या थी? क्या वो uniform था? Mauryan Empire के पाँच major political centres थे: Capital Pataliputra और provincial centres Taxila (northwest), Ujjayini (west), Tosali (east/Orissa), Suvarnagiri (south). पर historians increasingly realise करते हैं कि empire uniform नहीं था। Regions too diverse थे। Administrative control strongest था capital और provincial centres के आसपास — carefully chosen on long-distance trade routes। Dhamma mahamattas special officers थे जो dhamma का message spread करते थे।

 

Q5. Land grants क्यों दिए जाते थे? इनके historical implications क्या थे? Land grants की interpretation को लेकर historians divided हैं। एक view: यह ruling strategy थी — agriculture को new areas में extend करना। दूसरा view: यह political power के weakening का indicator था — kings samantas को control खोते जा रहे थे, इसलिए land grants से allies बनाने की कोशिश कर रहे थे। Agrahara grants Brahmanas को tax-free land देते थे। Prabhavati Gupta की inscription इस practice का fascinating example है जहाँ एक woman queen ने grant किया।

 

Q6. Punch-marked coins का significance क्या है? Punch-marked coins (silver और copper) c. sixth century BCE से earliest minted coins थे। इन पर symbols punch या stamp किए गए — इसीलिए ‘punch-marked’ नाम है। Numismatists (coin study specialists) ने इन्हें use करके commercial networks reconstruct किए। Mauryas से specific ruling dynasties को associate किया गया। Indo-Greeks first थे जिन्होंने coins पर rulers के names और images डाले — यह tradition establish हुई।

 

Q7. Epigraphy की limitations क्या हैं? Technical limitations: letters faintly engraved, uncertain reconstructions; inscriptions damaged या missing letters; exact word meanings unclear; scholars constantly debate alternative readings। Content limitations: routine daily life — agriculture, joys, sorrows — mentioned नहीं; inscriptions project commissioner’s perspective; not everything politically/economically significant recorded था। Scale limitation: thousands discovered पर not all deciphered; many more must have existed but survived नहीं — what’s available is probably only a fraction।

 

Q8. Kushana kings ने divine status कैसे claim किया? Kushanas ने ‘devaputra’ (son of god) title adopt किया — Chinese rulers ‘sons of heaven’ कहते थे। Colossal statues installed किए Mat near Mathura में एक shrine में — divine imagery के साथ। Coins पर divine imagery — Kanishka’s coin पर obverse में king, reverse में a deity। यह strategy legitimacy establish करने की थी — especially important था क्योंकि Kushanas Central Asia से आए थे और subcontinent में newcomers थे।

 

PSC / UPSC Related MCQs — Topic Wise

Section A: Epigraphy & Inscriptions

1. Who deciphered the Brahmi script in 1838? (a) Alexander Cunningham (b) James Prinsep (c) Colin Mackenzie (d) D.C. Sircar

Answer: (b)

2. The Asokan inscriptions were written in which script in the northwest? (a) Brahmi (b) Devanagari (c) Kharosthi (d) Grantha

Answer: (c)

3. Epigraphia Indica was first issued in which year? (a) 1877 (b) 1884 (c) 1886 (d) 1888

Answer: (d)

4. Asoka referred to himself in inscriptions as:

1. Piyadassi

2. Devanampiya

3. Chakravartin

   (a) 1 only

   (b) 1 and 2 only

   (c) 2 and 3 only

   (d) All of the above

Answer: (b)

5. The Asiatic Society (Bengal) was founded in: (a) 1774 (b) 1784 (c) 1800 (d) 1810

Answer: (b)

Section B: Mahajanapadas & Mauryan Empire

1. Which of the following was NOT a direct reason for Magadha’s rise to power? (a) High agricultural productivity (b) Availability of iron mines for weaponry (c) Strong coastal naval power infrastructure (d) Abundance of elephants in adjacent forests

Answer: (c)

2. Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire around: (a) 600 BCE (b) 321 BCE (c) 272 BCE (d) 185 BCE

Answer: (b)

3. The Arthashastra is traditionally attributed to: (a) Harishena (b) Megasthenes (c) Kautilya / Chanakya (d) Banabhatta

Answer: (c)

4. Which of the following was the designated provincial centre of the Mauryan Empire in the deep south? (a) Taxila (b) Tosali (c) Ujjayini (d) Suvarnagiri

Answer: (d)

5. The Mauryan Empire lasted for approximately how many years? (a) 50 years (b) 150 years (c) 300 years (d) 500 years

Answer: (b)

6. Kalinga (conquered by Asoka) corresponds to present-day: (a) Southern Bihar (b) Eastern Madhya Pradesh (c) Coastal Orissa (d) Northern Karnataka

Answer: (c)

Section C: Kingship, Agriculture & Trade

1. The term ‘devaputra’ meaning ‘son of god’ was adopted by which rulers? (a) Mauryas (b) Kushanas (c) Guptas (d) Satavahanas

Answer: (b)

2. Prabhavati Gupta was the daughter of which prominent ruler? (a) Samudragupta (b) Chandragupta I (c) Chandragupta II (d) Skandagupta

Answer: (c)

3. The ancient term ‘Agrahara’ refers to: (a) Land assigned for administrative military upkeep (b) Tax-free land grants made exclusively to Brahmanas (c) Public community land designated for lower varnas (d) Toll tax collected along long-distance trade routes

Answer: (b)

4. The historical text ‘Periplus of the Erythraean Sea’ was composed by: (a) Megasthenes (b) An anonymous Greek sailor (c) Harishena (d) Faxian

Answer: (b)

5. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) luxury pottery was predominantly used by:

(a) Common agrarian peasants (b) Rich urban elites (c) Only royalty inside palaces (d) Wandering Buddhist monks

Answer: (b)

6. Punch-marked coins were first minted in the Indian Subcontinent approximately around:

(a) 1000 BCE (b) 600 BCE (c) 300 BCE (d) 100 CE

Answer: (b)

7. The Kushanas issued the largest volume hoards of which metal coins?

(a) Silver coins (b) Copper coins (c) Gold coins (d) Bronze coins

Answer: (c)

8. ‘Gahapati’ is a socio-economic status term originating from which language?

(a) Sanskrit (b) Tamil (c) Pali (d) Prakrit

Answer: (c)

Section D: Mixed / Higher Order Questions

1. Which of the following statements about Asokan inscriptions is CORRECT? (a) They were written entirely in high court Sanskrit. (b) They used the Brahmi script across all global regions. (c) Most were in the Prakrit language, with some in Aramaic and Greek in the northwest. (d) They were written exclusively in early Tamil scripts.

Answer: (c)

2. The Prayaga Prashasti was composed by which legendary court poet? (a) Banabhatta (b) Kalidasa (c) Harishena (d) Ravikirti

Answer: (c)

3. The canonical Jataka stories were written down in which language? (a) Sanskrit (b) Pali (c) Prakrit (d) Ardhamagadhi

Answer: (b)

4. Consider the following statements regarding epigraphy:

1. Epigraphy provides a complete, unbiased account of economic history.

2. Inscriptions focus heavily on grand elite events over daily life routines.

3. Every single ancient inscription discovered has been successfully deciphered.

   Which of the statements above is/are CORRECT?

   (a) 2 only

   (b) 1 and 3

   (c) 1 only

   (d) All of the above

Answer: (a)

5. The ancient Vajji Sangha state serves as a prime textbook example of a:

(a) Absolute Theocracy (b) Centralised Monarchy (c) Oligarchy / Gana-Sangha (d) Direct Democracy

Answer: (c)

Quick Answer Key Reference

✅ Section A Answers 1-(b), 2-(c), 3-(d), 4-(b), 5-(b)

 

✅ Section B Answers 6-(c), 7-(b), 8-(c), 9-(d), 10-(b), 11-(c)

 

✅ Section C Answers 12-(b), 13-(c), 14-(b), 15-(b), 16-(b), 17-(b), 18-(c), 19-(c)

 

✅ Section D Answers 20-(c), 21-(c), 22-(b), 23-(a), 24-(c)

Important Terms — Glossary / शब्दावली

Term / शब्द	Meaning / अर्थ
Epigraphy / Epigraफी	The study of inscriptions — शिलालेखों का अध्ययन
Mahajanapada / महाजनपद	Large territorial states of 6th century BCE — बड़े राज्य जहाँ जन (लोग/जनजाति) अपना पाँव जमाती है
Oligarchy / अल्पतंत्र	Government where power is exercised by a group of men, not one king — जैसे Vajji Sangha
Agrahara / अग्रहार	Tax-free land grant to Brahmanas with right to collect dues from local people
Gahapati / गहपति	Owner/head of household with control over land, animals, women, workers, slaves — wealthy merchant or large landowner
Dhamma / धम्म	Asoka’s moral principles — respect for elders, generosity to Brahmanas, treating slaves kindly, respect for other religions
Prashasti / प्रशस्ति	Eulogistic poetry composed in praise of kings — not literally true but historically informative
Devaputra / देवपुत्र	Son of god — title adopted by Kushana rulers to claim divine legitimacy
Numismatics / मुद्राशास्त्र	Study of coins including visual elements such as scripts and images, metallurgical analysis and contexts
Punch-marked coins	Earliest coins where symbols were punched or stamped onto metal surface — c. 6th century BCE onwards
Samantas / सामंत	Local lords who provided military support to kings; could become powerful as kings grew weak
Transplantation	Paddy cultivation method where seeds first broadcast, saplings grown then transplanted — higher yield in waterlogged fields

 

Teacher’s Final Note — Exam Strategy बच्चों, इस chapter से PSC में mostly factual questions आते हैं — dates, names, terms। UPSC में analytical questions होती हैं। हमेशा याद रखो:(1) Timeline: 600 BCE → Mahajanapadas; 321 BCE → Chandragupta; 272 BCE → Asoka; 185 BCE → Mauryan end; 78 CE → Kanishka; 320 CE → Guptas(2) Script connection: Brahmi → modern Indian scripts; Kharosthi → NW inscriptions(3) Sources are biased — inscriptions, prashastis, Jatakas — all have limitations(4) Economic history: Iron ploughshare → production increase; Punch-marked coins → trade networks; Gold coins tapering → possible economic shiftAll the best! History is not just dates — it’s the story of people, power and change.

Complete NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 2: Kings Farmers and Towns Notes in Hindi | UPSC & PSC free PDF Download